http://mail.knu.edu.tw/eryh/data/1002_NPS/NPS_LU3.pdf
From - 陳卓華博士/Dr. Sunny Chan
Cwchan@ipm.edu.mo
2013年10月28日星期一
2013年10月27日星期日
危機處理理論與實務剖析
http://web1.jsjh.tp.edu.tw/gov/g0/doc/%E5%8D%B1%E6%A9%9F%E8%99%95%E7%90%86%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96%E8%88%87%E5%AF%A6%E5%8B%99.doc
From - Dr Sunny Chan 陳卓華博士
Cwchan@ipm.edu.mo
+853-66357631
+852-66514372
From - Dr Sunny Chan 陳卓華博士
Cwchan@ipm.edu.mo
+853-66357631
+852-66514372
stpa lecture note- crisis management
Crisis management and government stpa 2013
Modernization --
Complexity of social life, unexpected consequences --
Natural vs unnatural crisis;
Individual vs collective crisis;
Mechanism to reduce the harm of crisis onto individuals – e.g. safety belt; auto-sprinkler system; sickness insurance, hedge fund, etc.
Human rights and roles of the government;
Crisis management in organizations
Time efficiency and proper action efficiency
Order and system
Loss reduction, saving of lives.
Elements are common to a crisis:
-- a threat to the organization;
-- the element of surprise/ uncertain,
-- urgent, fast moving, a short decision time.
-- complexity
-- great threat;
-- procedural;
-- visible, alarm to public;
-- need for change -- Venette argues that "crisis is a process of transformation where the old system can no longer be maintained."
Therefore the fourth defining quality is the need for change. If change is not needed, the event could more accurately be described as a failure or incident.
Crisis management involves dealing with threats before, during, and after they have occurred. It is a discipline within the broader context of management consisting of skills and techniques required to identify, assess, understand, and cope with a serious situation, especially from the moment it first occurs to the point that recovery procedures start.
Crisis management is the process by which an organization deals with a major event that threatens to harm the organization, its stakeholders, or the general public. The study of crisis management originated with the large scale industrial and environmental disasters in the 1980s.
Well planning
Systematic
Continuing effort
Scientific
Preventive
Organizational work, coordination, communication
Alert by all members
Exercises before crisis e.g. fire exercise
Crisis management consists of different aspects including;
• Methods used to respond to both the reality and perception of crises.
• Establishing metrics to define what scenarios constitute a crisis and should consequently trigger the necessary response mechanisms.
• Communication that occurs within the response phase of emergency-management scenarios.
Crisis-management methods of a business or an organization are called a crisis-management plan.
A crisis mindset requires the ability to think of the worst-case scenario while simultaneously suggesting numerous solutions.
Trial and error is an accepted discipline, as the first line of defense might not work. It is necessary to maintain a list of contingency plans and to be always on alert.
Organizations and individuals should always be prepared with a rapid response plan to emergencies which would require analysis, drills and exercises.
The credibility and reputation of organizations is heavily influenced by the perception of their responses during crisis situations.
The organization and communication involved in responding to a crisis in a timely fashion makes for a challenge in businesses.
There must be open and consistent communication throughout the hierarchy to contribute to a successful crisis-communication process.
The related terms emergency management and business-continuity management focus respectively on the prompt but short lived "first aid" type of response (e.g. putting the fire out) and the longer-term recovery and restoration phases (e.g. moving operations to another site).
Risk management --
Remove risk
Reduce risk
Spread risk
Transfer / sharing risk
Accept risk
Crisis = urgent, present, obvious, serious;
Risk = uncertain, future, degree unknown;
Types of crisis
Natural/ infectious diseases / climate/ earthquake / tsunami/ heavy rain/ river flooding/ drought
Traffic
Technological
War
Criminal act
Terrorism
Political/ riots
Economic/ financial
During the crisis management process, it is important to identify types of crises in that different crises necessitate the use of different crisis management strategies.
Potential crises are enormous, but crises can be clustered.
Lerbinger categorized eight types of crises
1. Natural disaster
2. Technological crises
3. Confrontation
4. Malevolence
5. Organizational Misdeeds
6. Workplace Violence
7. Rumors
8. Terrorist attacks/man-made disasters
Natural crises
Natural crises, typically natural disasters considered as 'acts of God,' are such environmental phenomena as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes and hurricanes, floods, landslides, tsunamis, storms, and droughts that threaten life, property, and the environment itself.
Example: 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake (Tsunami)
Technological crises
Technological crises are caused by human application of science and technology. Technological accidents inevitably occur when technology becomes complex and coupled and something goes wrong in the system as a whole (Technological breakdowns).
Some technological crises occur when human error causes disruptions (Human breakdowns).
People tend to assign blame for a technological disaster because technology is subject to human manipulation whereas they do not hold anyone responsible for natural disaster.
When an accident creates significant environmental damage, the crisis is categorized as mega-damage. Samples include software failures, industrial accidents, and oil spills.
Confrontation crisis
Confrontation crisis occur when discontented individuals and/or groups fight businesses, government, and various interest groups to win acceptance of their demands and expectations.
The common type of confrontation crisis is boycotts, and other types are picketing, sit-ins, ultimatums to those in authority, blockade or occupation of buildings, and resisting or disobeying police.
Example: Rainbow/PUSH's (People United to Serve Humanity) boycott of Nike
Crisis of malevolence
An organization faces a crisis of malevolence when opponents or miscreant individuals use criminal means or other extreme tactics for the purpose of expressing hostility or anger toward, or seeking gain from, a company, country, or economic system, perhaps with the aim of destabilizing or destroying it.
Sample crisis include product tampering, kidnapping, malicious rumors, terrorism, and espionage
Example: 1982 Chicago Tylenol murders
///
Crises of organizational misdeeds
Crises occur when management takes actions it knows will harm or place stakeholders at risk for harm without adequate precautions.
three different types of crises of organizational misdeeds: crises of skewed management values,
crises of deception,
and crises of management misconduct.
Crises of skewed management values
Crises of skewed management values are caused when managers favor short-term economic gain and neglect broader social values and stakeholders other than investors.
This state of lopsided values is rooted in the classical business creed that focuses on the interests of stockholders and tends to disregard the interests of its other stakeholders such as customers, employees, and the community
Example: LINK property and shops management company in HK.
Crisis of deception
Crisis of deception occur when management conceals or misrepresents information about itself and its products in its dealing with consumers and others.
Example: Dow Corning's silicone-gel breast implant
Crises of management misconduct
Some crises are caused not only by skewed values and deception but deliberate amorality and illegality.
Workplace violence
Crises occur when an employee or former employee commits violence against other employees on organizational grounds.
Rumors
False information about an organization or its products creates crises hurting the organization's reputation. Sample is linking the organization to radical groups or stories that their products are contaminated.
/////
Five steps of crisis
Evaluation
Preventive plan
preventive exercises
reaction to real crisis
recovery
Domino theory
First domino – ancestry and social environment – hidden factors;
Second – fault of the person – unintentional, accumulative; but can be checked;
Third – unsafe act and/or mechanical or physical hazard;
Fourth – the accident itself
Fifth – the injury or damage sustained
Domino theory of hazards
Indirect factors – environmental, material, psychological, others;
Direct factors -- environmental, material, behavioral;
The accident itself – risk/danger of life, property, honor/reputation,;
Direct loss -- life, body integrity, health, property,
Indirect loss – property, psychological/emotional, honor/reputation,;
Principles of crisis management
Forecasting, prediction, scientific, system design; experiments and testing;
Regular unit for crisis management, exercises;
Fast and effective reaction to crisis;
Containment / Setting of boundary for crisis influence;
Crisis management team – rapid investigation of the sources/causes of crisis; search for the solutions;
Setting of priority of protection
Effective channel of communication, to the public and to the affected units;
Flexibility and rigidity;
Crisis Leadership
Erika Hayes James, an organizational psychologist at the University of Virginia's Darden Graduate School of Business, identifies two primary types of organizational crisis.
James defines organizational crisis as "any emotionally charged situation that, once it becomes public, invites negative stakeholder reaction and thereby has the potential to threaten the financial well-being, reputation, or survival of the firm or some portion thereof."
Sudden crisis
Smoldering crises
Sudden crises
Sudden crises are circumstances that occur without warning and beyond an institution's control. Consequently, sudden crises are most often situations for which the institution and its leadership are not blamed.
Smoldering crises [slow heating]
Smoldering crises differ from sudden crises in that they begin as minor internal issues that, due to manager's negligence, develop to crisis status.
These are situations when leaders are blamed for the crisis and its subsequent effect on the institution in question.
James categorizes five phases of crisis that require specific crisis leadership competencies
Each phase contains an obstacle that a leader must overcome to improve the structure and operations of an organization. James's case study on crisis in the financial services sector, for example, explores why crisis events erode public trust in leadership.
James's research demonstrates how leadership competencies of integrity, positive intent, capability, mutual respect, and transparency impact the trust-building process.
Signal detection
Preparation and prevention
Containment and damage control
Business recovery
Learning
Signal detection
Sense-making: represents an attempt to create order and make sense, retrospectively, of what occurs. Perspective-taking: the ability to consider another person's or group's point of view.
Preparation and prevention
It is during this stage that crisis handlers begin preparing for or averting the crisis that had been foreshadowed in the signal detection stage.
Organizations such as the Red Cross's primary mission is to prepare for and prevent the escalation of crisis events. Walmart has been described as an emergency-relief standard bearer after having witnessed the incredibly speedy and well-coordinated effort to get supplies to the Gulf Coast of the United States in anticipation of Hurricane Katrina.
Containment and damage control
Usually the most vivid stage, the goal of crisis containment and damage control is to limit the reputational, financial, safety, and other threats to firm survival.
Crisis handlers work diligently during this stage to bring the crisis to an end as quickly as possible to limit the negative publicity to the organization, and move into the business recovery phase.
Business recovery
When crisis hits, organizations must be able to carry on with their business in the midst of the crisis while simultaneously planning for how they will recover from the damage the crisis caused.
Crisis handlers not only engage in continuity planning (determining the people, financial, and technology resources needed to keep the organization running), but will also actively pursue organizational resilience.
Learning
In the wake of a crisis, organizational decision makers adopt a learning orientation and use prior experience to develop new routines and behaviors that ultimately change the way the organization operates. The best leaders recognize this and are purposeful and skillful in finding the learning opportunities inherent in every crisis situation.
Crisis communication
The effort taken by an organization to communicate with the public and stakeholders when an unexpected event occurs that could have a negative impact on the organization's reputation. This can also refer to the efforts to inform employees or the public of a potential hazard which could have a catastrophic impact.
The Crisis Communication usually consists of three elements:
1. A holding statement (a passive prepared press statement which has been approved by the Crisis Communicators and Legal Advisors),
2. Questions & answers (Q&A) with prepared and agreed answers for foreseeable questions if asked and,
3. Internal communication.
Contingency planning
Preparing contingency plans in advance, as part of a crisis-management plan, is the first step to ensuring an organization is appropriately prepared for a crisis.
Crisis-management teams can rehearse a crisis plan by developing a simulated scenario to use as a drill.
The plan should clearly stipulate that the only people to speak publicly about the crisis are the designated persons, such as the company spokesperson or crisis team members. The first hours after a crisis breaks are the most crucial, so working with speed and efficiency is important, and the plan should indicate how quickly each function should be performed.
When preparing to offer a statement externally as well as internally, information should be accurate. Providing incorrect or manipulated information has a tendency to backfire and will greatly exacerbate the situation. The contingency plan should contain information and guidance that will help decision makers to consider not only the short-term consequences, but the long-term effects of every decision.
Role of apologies in crisis management
There has been debate about the role of apologies in crisis management, and some argue that apology opens an organization up for possible legal consequences.
"However some evidence indicates that compensation and sympathy, two less expensive strategies, are as effective as an apology in shaping people's perceptions of the organization taking responsibility for the crisis because these strategies focus on the victims' needs. The sympathy response expresses concern for victims while compensation offers victims something to offset the suffering."
Crisis leadership
James identifies five leadership competencies which facilitate organizational restructuring during and after a crisis.
1. Building an environment of trust
2. Reforming the organization's mindset
3. Identifying obvious and obscure vulnerabilities of the organization
4. Making wise and rapid decisions as well as taking courageous action
5. Learning from crisis to effect change.
Crisis leadership research concludes that leadership action in crisis reflects the competency of an organization, because the test of crisis demonstrates how well the institution's leadership structure serves the organization's goals and withstands crisis.
Developing effective human resources is vital when building organizational capabilities through crisis management executive leadership.
Social media and crisis management
Social media has accelerated the speed that information about a crisis can spread. The viral effect of social networks such as Twitter means that stakeholders can break news faster than traditional media - making managing a crisis harder.
This can be mitigated by having the right training and policy in place as well as the right social media monitoring tools to detect signs of a crisis breaking.
Social media also gives crisis management team access to real-time information about how a crisis is impacting stakeholder sentiment and the issues that are of most concern to them.
The crisis management mantra of Lanny Davis, former counsellor to Bill Clinton is to "Tell it Early, Tell it All, Tell it Yourself". A strategy employed at the Clinton White House 1996 – 1998, to any breaking.
Organizations should have a planned approach to releasing information to the media in the event of a crisis. A media reaction plan should include a company media representative as part of the Crisis Management Team (CMT).
Since there is always a degree of unpredictability during a crisis, it is best that all CMT members understand how to deal with the media and be prepared to do so, should they be thrust into such a situation.
In 2010 Procter & Gamble Co called reports that its new Pampers with Dry Max caused rashes and other skin irritations "completely false" as it aimed to contain a public relations threat to its biggest diaper innovation in 25 years. A Facebook group called "Pampers bring back the OLD CRUISERS/SWADDLERS" rose to over 4,500 members. Pampers denied the allegation and stated that only two complaints had been received for every one million diapers sold.
Pampers quickly reached out to people expressing their concerns via social media, Pampers even held a summit with four influential "mommy bloggers," to help dispel the rumor.
Pampers acted quickly and decisively to an emerging crisis, before competitors and critics alike could fuel the fire further.
There is no truth. There is only perception.
Crisis as Opportunity
To address such shareholder impact, management must move from a mindset that manages crisis to one that generates crisis leadership.
Research shows that organizational contributory factors affect the tendency of executives to adopt an effective "crisis as opportunity" mindset.
Since pressure is both a precipitator and consequence of crisis, leaders who perform well under pressure can effectively guide the organization through such crisis.
James contends that most executives focus on communications and public relations as a reactive strategy. While the company's reputation with shareholders, financial well-being, and survival are all at stake, potential damage to reputation can result from the actual management of the crisis issue.
Additionally, companies may stagnate as their risk management group identifies whether a crisis is sufficiently "statistically significant".
Crisis leadership, on the other hand, immediately addresses both the damage and implications for the company's present and future conditions, as well as opportunities for improvement. [10]
Government and crisis management
Emergency services, such as fire and police departments at the local level, and the United States National Guard at the federal level, often play integral roles in crisis situations.
To help coordinate communication during the response phase of a crisis, the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) within the Department of Homeland Security administers the National Response Plan (NRP).
This plan is intended to integrate public and private response by providing a common language and outlining a chain-of-command when multiple parties are mobilized. It is based on the premise that incidences should be handled at the lowest organizational level possible. The NRP recognizes the private sector as a key partner in domestic incident management, particularly in the area of critical infrastructure protection and restoration.
FEMA offers free web-based training on the National Response Plan through the Emergency Management Institute.
Common Alerting Protocol (CAP) is a relatively recent mechanism that facilitates crisis communication across different mediums and systems. CAP helps create a consistent emergency alert format to reach geographically and linguistically diverse audiences through both audio and visual mediums.
Elected officials and crisis management
Crisis management has become a defining feature of contemporary governance. In times of crisis, communities and members of organizations expect their public leaders to minimize the impact of the crisis at hand, while critics and bureaucratic competitors try to seize the moment to blame incumbent rulers and their policies. In this extreme environment, policymakers must somehow establish a sense of normality, and foster collective learning from the crisis experience.
The necessity for management is even more significant with the advent of a 24-hour news cycle and an increasingly internet-savvy audience with ever-changing technology at its fingertips.
Public leaders have a special responsibility to help safeguard society from the adverse consequences of crisis. Experts in crisis management note that leaders who take this responsibility seriously would have to concern themselves with all crisis phases: the incubation stage, the onset, and the aftermath. Crisis leadership then involves five critical tasks: sense making, decision making, meaning-making, terminating, and learning.
A brief description of the five facets of crisis leadership includes:
1/ Sense making may be considered as the classical situation assessment step in decision making.
2/ Decision making is both the act of coming to a decision as the implementation of that decision.
3/ Meaning making refers to crisis management as political communication.
4/ Terminating a crisis is only possible if the public leader correctly handles the accountability question.
5/ Learning, refers to the actual learning from a crisis is limited. The authors note, a crisis often opens a window of opportunity for reform for better or for worse.
//////
From - 陳卓華博士/Dr. Sunny Chan
Cwchan@ipm.edu.mo
Modernization --
Complexity of social life, unexpected consequences --
Natural vs unnatural crisis;
Individual vs collective crisis;
Mechanism to reduce the harm of crisis onto individuals – e.g. safety belt; auto-sprinkler system; sickness insurance, hedge fund, etc.
Human rights and roles of the government;
Crisis management in organizations
Time efficiency and proper action efficiency
Order and system
Loss reduction, saving of lives.
Elements are common to a crisis:
-- a threat to the organization;
-- the element of surprise/ uncertain,
-- urgent, fast moving, a short decision time.
-- complexity
-- great threat;
-- procedural;
-- visible, alarm to public;
-- need for change -- Venette argues that "crisis is a process of transformation where the old system can no longer be maintained."
Therefore the fourth defining quality is the need for change. If change is not needed, the event could more accurately be described as a failure or incident.
Crisis management involves dealing with threats before, during, and after they have occurred. It is a discipline within the broader context of management consisting of skills and techniques required to identify, assess, understand, and cope with a serious situation, especially from the moment it first occurs to the point that recovery procedures start.
Crisis management is the process by which an organization deals with a major event that threatens to harm the organization, its stakeholders, or the general public. The study of crisis management originated with the large scale industrial and environmental disasters in the 1980s.
Well planning
Systematic
Continuing effort
Scientific
Preventive
Organizational work, coordination, communication
Alert by all members
Exercises before crisis e.g. fire exercise
Crisis management consists of different aspects including;
• Methods used to respond to both the reality and perception of crises.
• Establishing metrics to define what scenarios constitute a crisis and should consequently trigger the necessary response mechanisms.
• Communication that occurs within the response phase of emergency-management scenarios.
Crisis-management methods of a business or an organization are called a crisis-management plan.
A crisis mindset requires the ability to think of the worst-case scenario while simultaneously suggesting numerous solutions.
Trial and error is an accepted discipline, as the first line of defense might not work. It is necessary to maintain a list of contingency plans and to be always on alert.
Organizations and individuals should always be prepared with a rapid response plan to emergencies which would require analysis, drills and exercises.
The credibility and reputation of organizations is heavily influenced by the perception of their responses during crisis situations.
The organization and communication involved in responding to a crisis in a timely fashion makes for a challenge in businesses.
There must be open and consistent communication throughout the hierarchy to contribute to a successful crisis-communication process.
The related terms emergency management and business-continuity management focus respectively on the prompt but short lived "first aid" type of response (e.g. putting the fire out) and the longer-term recovery and restoration phases (e.g. moving operations to another site).
Risk management --
Remove risk
Reduce risk
Spread risk
Transfer / sharing risk
Accept risk
Crisis = urgent, present, obvious, serious;
Risk = uncertain, future, degree unknown;
Types of crisis
Natural/ infectious diseases / climate/ earthquake / tsunami/ heavy rain/ river flooding/ drought
Traffic
Technological
War
Criminal act
Terrorism
Political/ riots
Economic/ financial
During the crisis management process, it is important to identify types of crises in that different crises necessitate the use of different crisis management strategies.
Potential crises are enormous, but crises can be clustered.
Lerbinger categorized eight types of crises
1. Natural disaster
2. Technological crises
3. Confrontation
4. Malevolence
5. Organizational Misdeeds
6. Workplace Violence
7. Rumors
8. Terrorist attacks/man-made disasters
Natural crises
Natural crises, typically natural disasters considered as 'acts of God,' are such environmental phenomena as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes and hurricanes, floods, landslides, tsunamis, storms, and droughts that threaten life, property, and the environment itself.
Example: 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake (Tsunami)
Technological crises
Technological crises are caused by human application of science and technology. Technological accidents inevitably occur when technology becomes complex and coupled and something goes wrong in the system as a whole (Technological breakdowns).
Some technological crises occur when human error causes disruptions (Human breakdowns).
People tend to assign blame for a technological disaster because technology is subject to human manipulation whereas they do not hold anyone responsible for natural disaster.
When an accident creates significant environmental damage, the crisis is categorized as mega-damage. Samples include software failures, industrial accidents, and oil spills.
Confrontation crisis
Confrontation crisis occur when discontented individuals and/or groups fight businesses, government, and various interest groups to win acceptance of their demands and expectations.
The common type of confrontation crisis is boycotts, and other types are picketing, sit-ins, ultimatums to those in authority, blockade or occupation of buildings, and resisting or disobeying police.
Example: Rainbow/PUSH's (People United to Serve Humanity) boycott of Nike
Crisis of malevolence
An organization faces a crisis of malevolence when opponents or miscreant individuals use criminal means or other extreme tactics for the purpose of expressing hostility or anger toward, or seeking gain from, a company, country, or economic system, perhaps with the aim of destabilizing or destroying it.
Sample crisis include product tampering, kidnapping, malicious rumors, terrorism, and espionage
Example: 1982 Chicago Tylenol murders
///
Crises of organizational misdeeds
Crises occur when management takes actions it knows will harm or place stakeholders at risk for harm without adequate precautions.
three different types of crises of organizational misdeeds: crises of skewed management values,
crises of deception,
and crises of management misconduct.
Crises of skewed management values
Crises of skewed management values are caused when managers favor short-term economic gain and neglect broader social values and stakeholders other than investors.
This state of lopsided values is rooted in the classical business creed that focuses on the interests of stockholders and tends to disregard the interests of its other stakeholders such as customers, employees, and the community
Example: LINK property and shops management company in HK.
Crisis of deception
Crisis of deception occur when management conceals or misrepresents information about itself and its products in its dealing with consumers and others.
Example: Dow Corning's silicone-gel breast implant
Crises of management misconduct
Some crises are caused not only by skewed values and deception but deliberate amorality and illegality.
Workplace violence
Crises occur when an employee or former employee commits violence against other employees on organizational grounds.
Rumors
False information about an organization or its products creates crises hurting the organization's reputation. Sample is linking the organization to radical groups or stories that their products are contaminated.
/////
Five steps of crisis
Evaluation
Preventive plan
preventive exercises
reaction to real crisis
recovery
Domino theory
First domino – ancestry and social environment – hidden factors;
Second – fault of the person – unintentional, accumulative; but can be checked;
Third – unsafe act and/or mechanical or physical hazard;
Fourth – the accident itself
Fifth – the injury or damage sustained
Domino theory of hazards
Indirect factors – environmental, material, psychological, others;
Direct factors -- environmental, material, behavioral;
The accident itself – risk/danger of life, property, honor/reputation,;
Direct loss -- life, body integrity, health, property,
Indirect loss – property, psychological/emotional, honor/reputation,;
Principles of crisis management
Forecasting, prediction, scientific, system design; experiments and testing;
Regular unit for crisis management, exercises;
Fast and effective reaction to crisis;
Containment / Setting of boundary for crisis influence;
Crisis management team – rapid investigation of the sources/causes of crisis; search for the solutions;
Setting of priority of protection
Effective channel of communication, to the public and to the affected units;
Flexibility and rigidity;
Crisis Leadership
Erika Hayes James, an organizational psychologist at the University of Virginia's Darden Graduate School of Business, identifies two primary types of organizational crisis.
James defines organizational crisis as "any emotionally charged situation that, once it becomes public, invites negative stakeholder reaction and thereby has the potential to threaten the financial well-being, reputation, or survival of the firm or some portion thereof."
Sudden crisis
Smoldering crises
Sudden crises
Sudden crises are circumstances that occur without warning and beyond an institution's control. Consequently, sudden crises are most often situations for which the institution and its leadership are not blamed.
Smoldering crises [slow heating]
Smoldering crises differ from sudden crises in that they begin as minor internal issues that, due to manager's negligence, develop to crisis status.
These are situations when leaders are blamed for the crisis and its subsequent effect on the institution in question.
James categorizes five phases of crisis that require specific crisis leadership competencies
Each phase contains an obstacle that a leader must overcome to improve the structure and operations of an organization. James's case study on crisis in the financial services sector, for example, explores why crisis events erode public trust in leadership.
James's research demonstrates how leadership competencies of integrity, positive intent, capability, mutual respect, and transparency impact the trust-building process.
Signal detection
Preparation and prevention
Containment and damage control
Business recovery
Learning
Signal detection
Sense-making: represents an attempt to create order and make sense, retrospectively, of what occurs. Perspective-taking: the ability to consider another person's or group's point of view.
Preparation and prevention
It is during this stage that crisis handlers begin preparing for or averting the crisis that had been foreshadowed in the signal detection stage.
Organizations such as the Red Cross's primary mission is to prepare for and prevent the escalation of crisis events. Walmart has been described as an emergency-relief standard bearer after having witnessed the incredibly speedy and well-coordinated effort to get supplies to the Gulf Coast of the United States in anticipation of Hurricane Katrina.
Containment and damage control
Usually the most vivid stage, the goal of crisis containment and damage control is to limit the reputational, financial, safety, and other threats to firm survival.
Crisis handlers work diligently during this stage to bring the crisis to an end as quickly as possible to limit the negative publicity to the organization, and move into the business recovery phase.
Business recovery
When crisis hits, organizations must be able to carry on with their business in the midst of the crisis while simultaneously planning for how they will recover from the damage the crisis caused.
Crisis handlers not only engage in continuity planning (determining the people, financial, and technology resources needed to keep the organization running), but will also actively pursue organizational resilience.
Learning
In the wake of a crisis, organizational decision makers adopt a learning orientation and use prior experience to develop new routines and behaviors that ultimately change the way the organization operates. The best leaders recognize this and are purposeful and skillful in finding the learning opportunities inherent in every crisis situation.
Crisis communication
The effort taken by an organization to communicate with the public and stakeholders when an unexpected event occurs that could have a negative impact on the organization's reputation. This can also refer to the efforts to inform employees or the public of a potential hazard which could have a catastrophic impact.
The Crisis Communication usually consists of three elements:
1. A holding statement (a passive prepared press statement which has been approved by the Crisis Communicators and Legal Advisors),
2. Questions & answers (Q&A) with prepared and agreed answers for foreseeable questions if asked and,
3. Internal communication.
Contingency planning
Preparing contingency plans in advance, as part of a crisis-management plan, is the first step to ensuring an organization is appropriately prepared for a crisis.
Crisis-management teams can rehearse a crisis plan by developing a simulated scenario to use as a drill.
The plan should clearly stipulate that the only people to speak publicly about the crisis are the designated persons, such as the company spokesperson or crisis team members. The first hours after a crisis breaks are the most crucial, so working with speed and efficiency is important, and the plan should indicate how quickly each function should be performed.
When preparing to offer a statement externally as well as internally, information should be accurate. Providing incorrect or manipulated information has a tendency to backfire and will greatly exacerbate the situation. The contingency plan should contain information and guidance that will help decision makers to consider not only the short-term consequences, but the long-term effects of every decision.
Role of apologies in crisis management
There has been debate about the role of apologies in crisis management, and some argue that apology opens an organization up for possible legal consequences.
"However some evidence indicates that compensation and sympathy, two less expensive strategies, are as effective as an apology in shaping people's perceptions of the organization taking responsibility for the crisis because these strategies focus on the victims' needs. The sympathy response expresses concern for victims while compensation offers victims something to offset the suffering."
Crisis leadership
James identifies five leadership competencies which facilitate organizational restructuring during and after a crisis.
1. Building an environment of trust
2. Reforming the organization's mindset
3. Identifying obvious and obscure vulnerabilities of the organization
4. Making wise and rapid decisions as well as taking courageous action
5. Learning from crisis to effect change.
Crisis leadership research concludes that leadership action in crisis reflects the competency of an organization, because the test of crisis demonstrates how well the institution's leadership structure serves the organization's goals and withstands crisis.
Developing effective human resources is vital when building organizational capabilities through crisis management executive leadership.
Social media and crisis management
Social media has accelerated the speed that information about a crisis can spread. The viral effect of social networks such as Twitter means that stakeholders can break news faster than traditional media - making managing a crisis harder.
This can be mitigated by having the right training and policy in place as well as the right social media monitoring tools to detect signs of a crisis breaking.
Social media also gives crisis management team access to real-time information about how a crisis is impacting stakeholder sentiment and the issues that are of most concern to them.
The crisis management mantra of Lanny Davis, former counsellor to Bill Clinton is to "Tell it Early, Tell it All, Tell it Yourself". A strategy employed at the Clinton White House 1996 – 1998, to any breaking.
Organizations should have a planned approach to releasing information to the media in the event of a crisis. A media reaction plan should include a company media representative as part of the Crisis Management Team (CMT).
Since there is always a degree of unpredictability during a crisis, it is best that all CMT members understand how to deal with the media and be prepared to do so, should they be thrust into such a situation.
In 2010 Procter & Gamble Co called reports that its new Pampers with Dry Max caused rashes and other skin irritations "completely false" as it aimed to contain a public relations threat to its biggest diaper innovation in 25 years. A Facebook group called "Pampers bring back the OLD CRUISERS/SWADDLERS" rose to over 4,500 members. Pampers denied the allegation and stated that only two complaints had been received for every one million diapers sold.
Pampers quickly reached out to people expressing their concerns via social media, Pampers even held a summit with four influential "mommy bloggers," to help dispel the rumor.
Pampers acted quickly and decisively to an emerging crisis, before competitors and critics alike could fuel the fire further.
There is no truth. There is only perception.
Crisis as Opportunity
To address such shareholder impact, management must move from a mindset that manages crisis to one that generates crisis leadership.
Research shows that organizational contributory factors affect the tendency of executives to adopt an effective "crisis as opportunity" mindset.
Since pressure is both a precipitator and consequence of crisis, leaders who perform well under pressure can effectively guide the organization through such crisis.
James contends that most executives focus on communications and public relations as a reactive strategy. While the company's reputation with shareholders, financial well-being, and survival are all at stake, potential damage to reputation can result from the actual management of the crisis issue.
Additionally, companies may stagnate as their risk management group identifies whether a crisis is sufficiently "statistically significant".
Crisis leadership, on the other hand, immediately addresses both the damage and implications for the company's present and future conditions, as well as opportunities for improvement. [10]
Government and crisis management
Emergency services, such as fire and police departments at the local level, and the United States National Guard at the federal level, often play integral roles in crisis situations.
To help coordinate communication during the response phase of a crisis, the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) within the Department of Homeland Security administers the National Response Plan (NRP).
This plan is intended to integrate public and private response by providing a common language and outlining a chain-of-command when multiple parties are mobilized. It is based on the premise that incidences should be handled at the lowest organizational level possible. The NRP recognizes the private sector as a key partner in domestic incident management, particularly in the area of critical infrastructure protection and restoration.
FEMA offers free web-based training on the National Response Plan through the Emergency Management Institute.
Common Alerting Protocol (CAP) is a relatively recent mechanism that facilitates crisis communication across different mediums and systems. CAP helps create a consistent emergency alert format to reach geographically and linguistically diverse audiences through both audio and visual mediums.
Elected officials and crisis management
Crisis management has become a defining feature of contemporary governance. In times of crisis, communities and members of organizations expect their public leaders to minimize the impact of the crisis at hand, while critics and bureaucratic competitors try to seize the moment to blame incumbent rulers and their policies. In this extreme environment, policymakers must somehow establish a sense of normality, and foster collective learning from the crisis experience.
The necessity for management is even more significant with the advent of a 24-hour news cycle and an increasingly internet-savvy audience with ever-changing technology at its fingertips.
Public leaders have a special responsibility to help safeguard society from the adverse consequences of crisis. Experts in crisis management note that leaders who take this responsibility seriously would have to concern themselves with all crisis phases: the incubation stage, the onset, and the aftermath. Crisis leadership then involves five critical tasks: sense making, decision making, meaning-making, terminating, and learning.
A brief description of the five facets of crisis leadership includes:
1/ Sense making may be considered as the classical situation assessment step in decision making.
2/ Decision making is both the act of coming to a decision as the implementation of that decision.
3/ Meaning making refers to crisis management as political communication.
4/ Terminating a crisis is only possible if the public leader correctly handles the accountability question.
5/ Learning, refers to the actual learning from a crisis is limited. The authors note, a crisis often opens a window of opportunity for reform for better or for worse.
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From - 陳卓華博士/Dr. Sunny Chan
Cwchan@ipm.edu.mo
2013年10月26日星期六
政府，災難，危機管理，台灣八八水災
http://www2.scu.edu.tw/politics/news/doc/990528/proposal/3-3.pdf
From 陳卓華博士/Dr. Sunny Chan
Cwchan@ipm.edu.mo
From 陳卓華博士/Dr. Sunny Chan
Cwchan@ipm.edu.mo
危機管理理論探討, nccu.edu.tw// thesis
第二章危機管理理論探討
nccuir.lib.nccu.edu.tw/bitstream/140.119/33834/6/22009106.pdf
本研究所研討之危機係指國際政治與戰略學上所稱的危機，研討國家政府面. 對的極度危險狀況。本章即在此概念下探究危機與危機管理的理論，藉以釐清危. 機與危機 ...2013年10月1日星期二
公務員，核心能力，pdf - Google 搜尋
http://www.google.com.tw/search?client=safari&hl=zh-hant&ei=KZlLUpLCNq2uiQetq4H4Cw&q=%E5%85%AC%E5%8B%99%E5%93%A1%EF%BC%8C%E6%A0%B8%E5%BF%83%E8%83%BD%E5%8A%9B%EF%BC%8Cpdf&oq=%E5%85%AC%E5%8B%99%E5%93%A1%EF%BC%8C%E6%A0%B8%E5%BF%83%E8%83%BD%E5%8A%9B%EF%BC%8Cpdf&gs_l=tablet-gws.3...1356.4174.0.5048.4.4.0.0.0.0.710.960.2j1j6-1.4.0....0...1c.1.27.tablet-gws..3.1.137.XfDgTh9Twd8
From 陳卓華博士/Dr. Sunny Chan
Cwchan@ipm.edu.mo
From 陳卓華博士/Dr. Sunny Chan
Cwchan@ipm.edu.mo
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